Research

How do nation-building policies shape minorities' identities? Existing scholarship predicts two zero-sum responses: assimilation into national identity at the expense of ethnic identity, or retrenchment into ethnic identity at the expense of national belonging. I introduce a conceptual framework systematizing minority identity responses to nation-building policy and develop a theory of identity compatibility to explain non-zero-sum responses. I theorize that contexts permitting dual identification--- including when elite narratives and policies are more inclusive---enable national identity to grow without eroding ethnic attachments. Applying this framework to original panel survey, administrative, and qualitative data collected before and after Estonia's 2024 Russian-language schooling ban, I find that affected Russophone parents experienced a significant increase in national belonging while maintaining strong ethnic attachments. The policy also loosened perceived criteria for membership in the national community, making dual identification more feasible. These findings have implications for the study of integration, nation-building, and ethnic politics.